Criteria to rule out which religions cannot be true

Pure logic and reasoning alone, without relying on any religious scripture or tradition, are sufficient enough to conclude that monotheism is true. Monotheism is the affirmation that only one God exists, but what is meant by ‘God’ is not merely a being that is worshipped but a supreme omniscient and omnipotent necessary being. This being must be unique, as it has been demonstrated in previous articles that there can only be one necessary being and that the ṣifāt (attributes) of Allāh (God) cannot be possessed by anyone else. Furthermore, Allāh is immaterial because a material being is contingent upon space, and this contradicts necessity. Pantheism, panentheism, and incarnation can also be refuted since they contradict God’s necessity as well.

All of this can be used as a criteria to determine which religions could be true compared to those religions that cannot be true. The chart below shows the various views of many religions concerning monotheism, immateriality for God, pantheism, panentheism, and incarnation. A religion that has a check on all of these columns could be true, as it affirms monotheism and immateriality for God, and rejects pantheism, panentheism, and incarnation. A religion that has a cross mark on any of these columns must be false. A dash mark indicates unknown, not applicable, or not vital for research, as once a religion has a cross mark on any of these columns, then further investigation is not crucial for a seeker’s search for truth.

Religion	Monotheism	Immaterial God	Rejects Pantheism/Panentheism	Rejects Incarnation
Christianity	✔️ (somewhat)	✔️	✔️	❌ (mostly)
Islām	✔️	✔️	✔️	✔️
Hinduism	❌ (mostly)	—	—	❌ (mostly)
Buddhism	❌	—	—	—
Shinto	❌	—	—	—
Sikhism	✔️	✔️	❌	❌
Mormonism	❌	❌	✔️	❌
Judaism	✔️	✔️	✔️	✔️
Taoism	❌	—	❌	❌ (somewhat)
Baháʼí	✔️	✔️	✔️	✔️
Caodaism	✔️ (somewhat)	—	❌	—
Jainism	❌	—	—	—
Tenrikyo	✔️ (somewhat)	—	❌	—
Druze	✔️	—	—	❌

Christianity

Mainstream Christianity professes the Doctrine of the Trinity, which is a central tenet of Christianity affirmed by Catholics, Protestants, and Eastern Orthodox, which together comprise 99% of Christians worldwide. [1] The doctrine teaches that there is one being who is God, yet this one being exists as three distinct persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. These people are said to be coequal, coeternal, and consubstantial, and each is considered to be fully divine. According to Christianity, the Son incarnated (entered creation) and assumed a human nature, becoming ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام, born through the virgin Maryam (Mary) رضي الله عنها. Mainstream Christianity teaches that ʿĪsā عليه السلام is one person with two natures: the divine nature and the human nature. Christians consider him to have been both fully human and fully divine while on earth, and they claim that he is God and the literal begotten Son of God simultaneously. Virtually all Christians today, including those who reject that ʿĪsā عليه السلام is God, believe that he is God's literal son, a prophet, and the Messiah (Al-Masīḥ) who was crucified for the sins of humanity, and he was resurrected three days later and then ascended to the Father. Mainstream Christianity teaches that his human nature, and not the divine nature, died on the cross, but he regained the human nature upon resurrection. He will be both fully divine and fully human forever and will one day return to the earth to bring about the final judgement and usher in an era of peace. This is the explanation of the Trinity in a nutshell.

While the chart adds a check mark to monotheism for Christianity, Muslims do not regard Christians as genuine monotheists. A simple syllogism demonstrates why the Trinity is actually polytheistic:

1. Every person is a being.
2. The Trinity consists of three different people.
3. Therefore, the Trinity consists of three different beings.

A being is anything that exists, whether it is a human, a rock, a planet, and so on. Therefore, every person is a being, but not every being is a person. Now consider that there are three persons: person A, person B, and person C, and these are three different people. If each one is God, then there would be three gods and not one God. Furthermore, it is a contradiction to believe that ʿĪsā عليه السلام is fully divine, infinite, omnipotent, omniscient, and immortal but also fully human, finite, mortal, and limited in power and knowledge. Another challenge with the Trinity is that it is not explicitly found in the Bible; rather, interpreting the Bible as teaching the Trinity often seems to require utilizing ambiguous verses instead of explicit ones. Moreover, the Trinity was not taught by ʿĪsā عليه السلام and the earliest Christians, but the doctrine was developed over three to five centuries after ʿĪsā عليه السلام. All of this showcases that mainstream Christian theology is false.

It is important to note that not all Christians believe in the Trinity. Some are unitarian, meaning they believe that God is a single person, rather than a triune being. Trinitarian Christians regard Unitarianism as a deviation from true Christianity, and they often excommunicate Unitarian Christians, claiming that they cannot attain salvation unless they accept the Trinity. Unitarian Christians often excommunicate Trinitarians as well.

Unitarian Christians are closer to Islām than Trinitarians. However, a significant difference remains: many Unitarian Christians still hold that ʿĪsā عليه السلام is the literal son of God, although not all of them maintain this view. As discussed in a previous article, it is illogical to attribute children to the necessary being. Therefore, any claim that God has a literal child is false. Nevertheless, if there are Unitarian Christians who affirm the absolute oneness of God and reject the notion that he has literal children, then their form of Christianity could be considered a possible candidate for a true religion [2].

Islām

Islām teaches that there is one God who is omniscient and omnipotent. As for immateriality, there were few sects of Islām that had an anthropomorphic theology, but this was a deviation from the ʿaqīdah (creed) of the earliest generations of Muslims, who denied a corporeal body for Allāh. Islām also rejects pantheism, panentheism, and incarnation theology. Some Ṣūfīs have historically espoused views that may be regarded as pantheism or panentheism. However, this is also a departure from the ʿaqīdah upheld by the earliest Muslims, who emphasized a clear distinction between Allāh and creation. It is important to note that such views are not representative of Ṣūfism as a whole. In fact, the majority of Ṣūfīs are Sunnīs who uphold the traditional ʿaqīdah of the early Muslims; these Ṣūfīs do not advocate pantheistic or panentheistic interpretations. All of this shows the soundness of Islāmic theology, and so it is a candidate for a true religion.

Hinduism

Hinduism is an incredibly diverse religion. It is generally polytheistic, as Hindus worship various idols, whom they consider to be gods and goddesses. Some may favor a particular deity over all others. Other Hindu sects can be viewed as monotheistic, as they believe in one ultimate God who is omniscient and omnipotent. Most Hindus, however, believe that God incarnates and takes on various forms. Few Hindus believe that God does not incarnate and is also wholly distinct from creation, but Hindu texts explicitly teach otherwise.

All this is Brahman. Everything comes from Brahman, everything goes back to Brahman, and everything is sustained by Brahman. One should therefore quietly meditate on Brahman. Each person has a mind of his own. What a person wills in his present life, he becomes when he leaves this world. One should bear this in mind and meditate accordingly (Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1) [3].

Hindus who affirm monotheism and reject incarnation and panentheism appear to be holding views that contradict their own religious texts and the views of mainstream Hinduism. Due to the explicit references of Hindu texts that affirm polytheism and panentheism, Hinduism cannot be considered as a candidate for a true religion.

Buddhism

Many religions have their own philosophies, but Buddhism is often seen to be just a type of philosophy instead of a religion, although many of its adherents treat it as a religion. Buddhism teaches that suffering is a natural part of life, but it can be reduced or even ended through understanding and personal growth. Suffering is often due to desires, so Buddhist philosophy teaches that by eliminating desires, one could end suffering or at least limit it significantly [4]. Its central message is that by following a particular path of living, people can achieve liberation. This path is known as the Eightfold Path, which includes right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The ultimate goal is to reach a state called Nirvana; Nirvana signifies a state of complete peace and freedom where suffering no longer exists. Those who reach Nirvana are no longer caught in Saṃsāra, which is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, and they experience lasting contentment and liberation.

Buddhism affirms the existence of devas, which are usually taken to be gods that wield great feats, but these gods are also believed to be trapped in the cycle of rebirth [5]. In this sense, Buddhism can be seen as a type of polytheism. Buddhists could also be agnostic, atheist, or even monotheists, but Buddhists tend to focus more on spiritual growth and enlightenment instead of theology. They are often non-theistic because of their indifference towards God; for many Buddhists, it does not matter if God exists or not. Muslims would argue that if God exists, then one's relationship with God would be of paramount importance. An omniscient being would be the best source of guidance and instruction for enlightenment.

Overall, it appears that Buddhist texts and teachings are generally skeptical of the belief in God. In Buddhism, even deities are subject to Saṃsāra. According to the Pāli Canon, the world periodically comes to an end, and the beings within it are reborn as gods in the lower heavenly realms. However, even these realms are impermanent and eventually come to an end as well. At the beginning of a new cycle, a deity known as Mahābrahmā is the first to be reborn. Finding himself alone, he desires the presence of others, and other gods are then reborn into that realm, appearing as his associates. In these Buddhist texts, Mahābrahmā forgets his previous lives and comes to mistakenly believe that he is an omniscient creator who is the origin of everything. This mistaken belief is then shared by the other gods in his realm. Eventually, one of these gods dies and is reborn as a human being but has the ability to recall his previous existence in the heavenly realm. He proceeds to teach that Mahābrahmā is the Creator, based on what he remembers. This is what ultimately gives rise to the human belief in a creator deity, which Buddhism views as a misunderstanding [6]. Muslims, on the other hand, say that the existence of God is a must that can be proven using logic.

Additionally, Buddhism affirms the cycle of Saṃsāra but does not teach that this process is in the control of a supreme being. Even if the Buddhist concept of Saṃsāra is true, the sophistication of this process raises deep philosophical questions. In many worldviews, such intricate and elaborate processes seem to highly suggest the presence of an intelligent designer. One could say that Saṃsāra is just like natural laws, but the fact that the world operates on laws and rules makes it reasonable to believe that there is some guiding figure behind these laws. While Buddhism generally denies such a being, or is skeptical of its existence, the idea remains persuasive to many [7]. The fact that Buddhist texts deny or are highly skeptical against God's existence disqualifies Buddhism as a candidate for a true religion.

Shinto

Shinto is a polytheistic and animistic Japanese religion. It revolves around the worship of multiple kami, which are basically deities or spirits. They are not viewed as supreme in the sense that they are omniscient or omnipotent [8]. As a consequence, Shinto should not be regarded as a candidate for a true religion.

Sikhism

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated close to the end of the 15th century CE. The religion teaches that God, known as ‘Waheguru’, revealed eleven gurus on earth to guide humanity, the first ten of whom were men born in the Indian Subcontinent. They are Guru Nanak, who was the founder of Sikhism, Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Har Krishan, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and Guru Gobind Singh. The central religious text of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib, is regarded by Sikhs to be the eleventh and final guru. While Sikhs do believe in a single omniscient, omnipotent, and immaterial God, their scripture affirms panentheism and incarnation theology.

The Guru is Shiva, the Guru Vishnu and Brahma, the Guru is Shiva's consort Parbati, Vishnu's consort Lakhshmi and Brahma's consort Saraswati (Guru Granth Sahib Ang 2).

He himself is everything; there is no other at all (Guru Granth Sahib Ang 39).

The Lord Himself wielded His Power and entered the world (Guru Granth Sahib Ang 1395).

The Embodiment of Light, the Lord Himself is called Guru Nanak (Guru Granth Sahib Ang 1408).

Panentheism and incarnation theology contradict the necessity of God’s existence. Furthermore, if panentheism and incarnation are false, then the Sikh thesis that everything is literally a part of God would actually result in polytheism, since it would have not correctly distinguished God from his creation. As a result, Sikhism cannot be regarded as a candidate for a true religion.

Mormonism

Mormonism is the religion that was founded by Joseph Smith in the early 19th century CE. The adherents of this religion are known as Mormons but often prefer to call themselves Latter-day Saints. The largest denomination within Mormonism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Mormons consider themselves to be Christian, but mainstream Christians do not consider Mormons to be such.

Like Christians, they believe in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. However, unlike Trinitarian Christians, they believe that these three persons are distinct gods. Mormonism affirms the existence of many gods and goddesses and teaches that humans can become gods. In April 1844 CE, just two months before his death, Joseph Smith delivered the sermon known as the King Follett Discourse. Joseph Smith said, “God himself was once as we are now, and is an exalted man, and sits enthroned in yonder heavens! … If you were to see him today, you would see him like a man in form, like yourselves in all the person, image, and very form as a man.” Moreover, Mormonism is explicitly anthropomorphic and attributes corporeal bodies to gods (Doctrine and Covenants 130:22).

It also appears that Joseph Smith believed in an infinite regress of gods, as he said in his final public sermon in June, known as the Sermon in the Grove, “If Jesus Christ was the Son of God, and John discovered that God the Father of Jesus Christ had a father, you may suppose that he had a father also. Where was there ever a son without a father? And where was there ever a father without first being a son? Whenever did a tree or anything spring into existence without a progenitor? And everything comes in this way. … Hence if Jesus had a father, can we not believe that he had a father also?”

Furthermore, Mormons believe in the incarnation of ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام. They reject pantheism and panentheism, as they do not believe that everything is a god. Due to the fact that Mormonism contradicts monotheism, affirms incarnation theology, and attributes corporeality to deities, it is not considered to be a candidate for a true religion.

Judaism

Judaism is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions, centered on the belief in a single omniscient and omnipotent God who established a covenant with the Jewish people. Its teachings and laws are primarily found in the Tawrāh (Torah), the main text of the Jews, which guides religious practice, ethics, and community life. Jews emphatically reject polytheism.

Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one (Deuteronomy 6:4). 

Furthermore, mainstream Judaism rejects corporeality for God.

You saw no form of any kind the day the Lord spoke to you at Horeb out of the fire. Therefore watch yourselves very carefully, so that you do not become corrupt and make for yourselves an idol, an image of any shape, whether formed like a man or a woman, or like any animal on earth or any bird that flies in the air, or like any creature that moves along the ground or any fish in the waters below (Deuteronomy 4:15-8). 

Due to this verse and others, mainstream Judaism does not interpret seemingly anthropomorphic verses in their scripture in an anthropomorphic manner. Incarnation theology is also denied, as God does not change in Judaism.

I the LORD do not change. So you, the descendants of Jacob, are not destroyed (Malachi 3:6).

Moreover, Judaism does not teach pantheism or panentheism but affirms a distinction between God and creation.

In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1).

Additionally, while this was not included in the chart, any theology that affirms literal children for God cannot be a candidate for a true religion. Numerous verses in Jewish scripture use language that seem to affirm that God has children. However, mainstream Judaism does not interpret these verses literally. Thus, Judaism can be considered a candidate for a true religion.

Taoism

Taoism, also spelled as Daoism, does not believe in God as commonly understood but teaches that there is an ultimate source of everything, referred to as Tao or Dao. Tao literally means 'the way' or 'the path'. Tao is thought to be the fundamental principle or order of reality that underlies all of existence. Taoists often hold to a pantheon of deities, which makes it polytheistic and animistic. These deities are sometimes seen as emanations of the foundation of reality [9]. Three deities, called the Three Pure Ones, are often at the top of the pantheon. Laozi, the founder of Taoism, is often worshipped and seen as an incarnation of one of the Three Pure Ones [10]. Taoism is also seen as having similar elements or teachings to pantheism or panentheism [11]. Due to the presence of polytheistic and panentheistic teachings within Taoism, as well as the belief in incarnation, it cannot be considered a candidate for a true religion.

Baháʼí

The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion founded in the mid-19th century CE by Bahá’u’lláh in Persia, which is now modern-day Iran. It teaches the unity of religions and the unity of humanity. Bahá’ís believe that Bahá’u’lláh is the latest in a line of messengers sent from God that includes Krishna, Ibrāhīm (Abraham) عليه السلام, Mūsā (Moses) عليه السلام, Buddha, ʿĪsā (Jesus) عليه السلام, and Muḥammad ﷺ, as well as many others, each of whom were sent to guide humanity in different eras [12]. The Bahá'í Faith's global administrative center is located in Haifa, Israel.

Monotheism is found throughout Bahá’í texts. Corporeality is denied for God.

So bewildered are they in the drunkenness of their evil desires, that they are powerless to recognize the Lord of all being, Whose voice calleth aloud from every direction: “There is none other God but Me, the Mighty, the All-Wise” (Gleanings LXXI).

To every discerning and illuminated heart it is evident that God, the unknowable Essence, the Divine Being, is immensely exalted beyond every human attribute, such as corporeal existence, ascent and descent, egress and regress (Kitáb-i-Íqán p. 98).

It does not appear that Bahá'í teachings promote pantheism or panentheism, but it is often claimed that Bahá'ís affirm incarnation theology due to their belief in manifestations of God. These manifestation are essentially the prophets. The term, 'manifestation', is not to be understood in the sense that God takes on the forms of prophets. Bahá’ísm does not teach that the prophets are God incarnate, but they are only meant to make God known to people. In this sense, they reflect and convey God's will to humanity, but this does not mean that they are actually God himself [13]. Thus, the Bahá'í faith qualifies to be a candidate for a true religion.

Caodaism

Caodaism is a monotheistic Vietnamese religion that was founded in the early 20th century CE. It is a syncretic religion, as it blends the teachings of various religions, such as Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, Vietnamese folk religion, and others. Caodaism affirms multiple gods and divine beings, although one reigns supreme over all others, so it is not purely monotheistic. Furthermore, it has a panentheistic conception of God [14]. Thus, Caodaism cannot be a candidate for a true religion.

Jainism

Jainism is an ancient religion that stresses nonviolence as the highest religious principle. The goal of Jainism is to achieve liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Those that achieve liberation are considered as gods in the sense that they are worshipped by Jains. However, the religion does not hold to a belief in a supreme omniscient and omnipotent creator God [15]. Consequently, it cannot be a candidate for a true religion.

Tenrikyo

Tenrikyo is a Japanese religion that originated in the 19th century CE. It is not strictly monotheistic, as while it does affirm the existence of a supreme God, it does believe in the existence of lesser gods that are often worshipped [16]. God is often called 'the Parent' in Tenrikyo, but so is the heaven and earth. However, the universe is not identified as God because Tenrikyo teaches that the universe is the body of God, but God is more than just the universe. Thus, Tenrikyo is panentheistic instead of pantheistic.

The earth and heaven of this world is your real Parent. Out of this, human beings were born (Ofudesaki X : 54).

This universe is the body of God. Ponder this in all matters (Ofudesaki III: 40 and 135).

Due to presence of polytheistic tendencies within Tenrikyo, as well as a panentheistic understanding of God, it is not a candidate for a true religion.

Druze

The Druze are primarily an Arab group who affirm monotheism. Their origins trace back to the Ismāʿīlīyyah, a Shīʿah offshoot. Many of the Ismāʿīlīyyah reject the Garden (Jannah), which is the final abode of believers in the ākhirah (hereafter), as well as Hell (Jahannam), which is the final abode of disbelievers (kuffār) in the ākhirah. Instead, many of them affirm reincarnation and the transmigration of souls. Thus, many of the Ismāʿīlīyyah are not Muslims, even if they claim to be such. As for the Druze, despite their Shīʿah origins, as well as their belief that Muḥammad ﷺ is a true prophet, they too are not considered to be Muslims because of their belief in reincarnation. Most of them do not label themselves as Muslims.

The founder of the Druze was Ḥamzah ibn ʿAlī ibn Aḥmad. He proclaimed that God incarnated in the form of a man [17]. This man was Abū ʿAlī al-Manṣūr, better known as Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh, who is an important figure within the faith. The Druze consider him to have been an incarnation of God on earth. Due to the explicit incarnation theology found within the Druze, it is not a candidate for a true religion.

The candidates

Certain Unitarian strands of Christianity, as well as Islām, Judaism, and the Baháʼí faith are each possibly true religions because all of their concepts of God are, at least on the apparent, seemingly correct, as they affirm monotheism and immateriality for God, and they reject pantheism, panentheism, and incarnation theology. However, they cannot all be true because their core teachings are contradictory. Later articles will demonstrate the problems of the Baháʼí faith, as well as the unreliability of the modern-day Tawrāh (Torah); since both Judaism and Christianity rely on the Tawrāh, then to demonstrate the unreliability of it would undermine the credibility of both religions. One may also ask about other religions that have not been mentioned in this article, but virtually all of them will not meet the criteria that has been mentioned.

[1] These sects may differ regarding the details of the doctrine. Furthermore, there are other Christian sects and denominations that also affirm the Trinity, although they are not considered to be mainstream.
[2] Another reason why Muslims reject Unitarian Christianity is because of the errors and contradictions within the Bible, and Unitarian Christianity affirms the Bible as authoritative.
[3] Hindus often consider Brahman to be more of an impersonal but supreme reality instead of a personal deity.
[4] A common misunderstanding is that Buddhism teaches that one should seek the elimination of all desires; this is incorrect. It would be paradoxical for Buddhists to desire to nullify their desires. Buddhism separates desires into different categories, with some being harmful and others being positive. One should seek to eliminate or at least curb some desires completely, while others are encouraged, such as the desire and resolute intent to pursue enlightenment.
[5] Kapstein, M. T. (2005). The Buddhist Refusal of Theism. Diogenes, 52(1), 61-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0392192105050603 (Original work published 2005).
[6] Harvey, Peter (2019). Buddhism and Monotheism, p. 36-8. Cambridge University Press.
[7] This is known as the design (teleological) argument. However, this is an inductive argument. The fact that the world appears to be highly ordered and designed does not prove that it is actually designed; at best, it is only probable that a designer designed it. On the other hand, the contingency argument is deductive and water-tight, as it proves the existence of a necessary being who is responsible for the creation of everything else.
[8] Boyd, J.W.W., & Williams, R.G. (2005). Japanese Shinto: An Interpretation of a Priestly Perspective. Philosophy East and West 55(1), 33-63. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/pew.2004.0039.
[9] Komjathy, Louis (2014). Daoism: A guide for the Perplexed, p. 99-100. Bloomsbury.
[10] Robinet, Isabelle (1997) [1992]. Taoism: Growth of a Religion, p. 63. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2839-9.
[11] Harrison, Paul (1999). Elements of Pantheism.
[12] The Qurʾān and Ḥadīth corpus do not mention Krishna or Buddha. It is possible that they were prophets, believers, or influential people of their times whose stories were originally true but were later corrupted. It is also possible that their accounts are completely fabricated. Nevertheless, since the main textual sources of Islām do not mention them, then Muslims should not make any definitive claims regarding these characters. The Qurʾān mentions that the stories of many prophets have not been revealed (Qurʾān 40:78). However, any person that comes after Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ and claims to be a recipient of waḥy (revelation) is judged as untruthful by Muslims because Islām teaches that there are no new prophets to be commissioned after him.
[13] Cole, Juan (1982). The Concept of Manifestation in the Baháʼí Writings. Baháʼí Studies. monograph 9. Ottawa: 1–38.
[14] https://www.caodai.org/p243a247/chapter-iii-caodai-cosmology.
[15] Long, Jeffery D. (2013), Jainism: An Introduction, I.B. Tauris, p. 83-5. ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6.
[16] Fukaya, Tadamasa (1973). The Fundamental Doctrines of Tenrikyo (天理教の根本教義). Tenri, Japan: Tenrikyo Overseas Mission Department; printed by Tenri-Jihosha (天理時報社). (April 1973 revision of 1960 original).
[17] Dānā, Nissîm (2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Sussex University Press. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.